Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a lifelong, severe psychiatric disorder that seriously disturbs thinking, emotion, and behavior. People with schizophrenia...
Modern Psychology
Intro:
Modern psychology is more than the study of the mind—it’s an evolving science that bridges biology, behavior, culture, and society. Today, psychologists explore everything from brain function and emotions to social dynamics and global challenges, using evidence-based methods alongside new interdisciplinary approaches. A better understanding of different symptoms allows us to seek the right treatments, gain deeper self-awareness, and find scientific ways to improve our lives. By combining scientific research with real-world application, modern psychology helps us understand ourselves, improve well-being, and create healthier, more inclusive communities.
Psychiatric disorders
It’s completely normal to occasionally experience some symptoms related to the disorder, such as feeling low, overwhelmed, or having trouble concentrating. However, if such emotional issues severely affect social, learning, work, and self-esteem, especially for a period of more than 3 months, it’s advised to talk to a mental health professional. Reaching out is a sign of strength, not weakness.
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a lifelong, severe psychiatric disorder that seriously disturbs thinking, emotion, and behavior. People with schizophrenia......
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
PTSD is somewhat unique among psychiatric disorders because it has a well-defined cause: a harrowing, traumatic event such as military......
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
OCD is a common, chronic condition aptly named for its symptoms: uncontrollable, recurring thoughts (obsessions) and repeated, ritualistic......
Major Depressive Disorder and the Bereavement Exclusion
Major depressive disorder is a well-known mental illness that affects how you feel, think, and behave, causing persistent feelings of...
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism is often considered a childhood condition, although many of its symptoms persist lifelong. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are......
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood conditions. ADHD is usually characterized by inattentiveness, as well as......
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
PTSD is somewhat unique among psychiatric disorders because it has a well-defined cause: a harrowing, traumatic event such as military...
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
OCD is a common, chronic condition aptly named for its symptoms: uncontrollable, recurring thoughts (obsessions) and repeated, ritualistic...
Major Depressive Disorder and the Bereavement Exclusion
Major depressive disorder is a well-known mental illness that affects how you feel, think, and behave, causing persistent feelings of sadness...
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Autism is often considered a childhood condition, although many of its symptoms persist lifelong. Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are...
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
ADHD is one of the most commonly diagnosed childhood conditions. ADHD is usually characterized by inattentiveness, as well as...
Case study
Emma Stone – Panic attack and anxiety disorder
Emma Stone, the La La Land actress, who is also an Academy Award-winning actress, began experiencing anxiety disorder and panic attacks as early as age seven. Emma experienced hallucinations, paranoia, and a decline in social functioning. Emma also described her experience with a panic attack in first grade: “When I was seven, I was convinced the house was burning down. I could just sense it. Not a hallucination, just a tightening in my chest, feeling I couldn’t breathe, like the world was going to end. There were some flare-ups like that, but my anxiety was constant…. At a certain point, I couldn’t go to friends’ houses anymore—I could barely get out the door to school.”
However, Emma manages her anxiety actively with therapy, meditation, and acting. Emma said that acting helped her draw on her “big feelings” and forces her to live in the moment. Though Emma still struggles with her anxiety to this date, she chose to look on the positive side “My mom always says that I was born with my nerves outside of my body. But I’m lucky for the anxiety, because it also makes me high-energy”.
Michael Phelps – Depression and anxiety disorder
Michael Phelps, the most decorated Olympian in history, shocked many when he opened up his experience with depression and bipolar disorder between Olympics. “I felt like I didn’t want to be alive anymore, and I felt for me that I was causing a lot of stress and issues for other people around me, so I thought the best thing for me to do was just leave,” he explained.
In 2014, Michael checked himself into an in-patient treatment center, where he spent 45 days. The therapy, exercise, and self-care measures, like journaling to cope, all helped Michael, but he said it’s an ongoing journey to stay mentally well. “I’m constantly learning. I’m constantly growing,” he said. Later, Michael helped bring awareness to mental health across the globe. As a male and an outstanding athlete, he also broke unique barriers and helped reduce the stigma of mental health by encouraging public discussion.
Demi Lovato – Bipolar Disorder, Substance Use, and Eating Disorder
The singer of hit songs such as “Heart Attack” and “Skyscraper” Demi Lovato, has long been open about her mental health struggles, including bipolar disorder, substance use, and eating disorder.
In 2011, Demi Lovato’s condition was at an all-time low. She was increasingly self-harming and finally checked into a rehab center for help. It was during this stay that she was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. “I was so relieved that I had finally had a diagnosis,” Lovato said. “I had spent so many years struggling, and I didn’t know why I was a certain way in dealing with depression at such extreme lows when I seemingly had the world in front of me just ripe with opportunities.”
Now, Demi receives therapy, exercises, and meditates daily to maintain her mental health and sobriety. She also advocates for mental health awareness by partnering with mental health organizations like “Be Vocal: Speak Up for Mental Health” to encourage others to seek help and speak about their struggles.
Treatment
Psychotherapy (talk therapy):
First wave:
A psychoanalytic therapy centered on Freud’s theory
Core Idea: People experience psychological symptoms because of unconscious conflicts, often rooted in early childhood (like early trauma or repressed desires). These conflicts leak into conscious life as anxiety, depression, phobias, or compulsions.
Method: Free association, dream analysis, and therapist interpretation.
Goal: Make the unconscious conscious.
Best for: People who want to explore deep-rooted emotional patterns, especially from childhood.
Second wave:
A series of therapies that have evolved based on changing cognition centered on cognitive behavioral therapy
Third wave:
-Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT; Linehan,1993),
-Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy(MBCT; Segal, Williams, &Teasdale, 2002), -Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT; Hayes,Strosahl,& Wilson, 1999)
Ethics:
Pharmacotherapy (medication-based therapy):
Core theory: correcting neurotransmitter imbalances in the brain
Here are some things about neuroscience you need to know to understand how it works:
-What are neurotransmitters? They are the molecules used by the nervous system to transmit messages between neurons, or from neurons to muscles
-How is the signal transmitted?
Membrane potential is the difference in electric potential between the interior and the exterior of a biological cell, which is usually -70mv and the inner part is more negative. When the membrane potential reaches about -50mv, an action potential occurs. The action potential then travels down the axon of a neuron as an electrical signal. It is then turned into a chemical signal, in the form of neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft, which then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, potentially triggering a new electrical signal in that neuron.
-After being used, neurotransmitters are recycled, usually through reuptake, returning back to the presynaptic neuron.
-What are excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?
Excitatory neurotransmitters are chemicals that stimulate a neuron to fire an action potential, essentially encouraging it to pass on a message, while inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent a neuron from firing, effectively blocking the transmission of a signal.
Now we can focus on the drug
Antidepressants(e.g., SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, MAOIs) – Used mainly for depression, but also anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD.
-How does it work? It increases levels of chemicals in the brain called neurotransmitters
For example, SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block the reuptake of serotonin and maintain it in the synaptic cleft to keep activating the receptor.
–What is the purpose of serotonin? It’s a monoamine neurotransmitter believed to play many roles, including but not limited to temperature regulation, sensory perception, and the onset of sleep. Most importantly, it regulates your mood. It is believed that a low level of serotonin is associated with many mental illnesses: depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, and so on.
-With a higher level of serotonin, conditions of depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and so on can be alleviated.
Downside: Upset stomach, vomiting, or diarrhea. Sweating. Headache. It takes 2-4 weeks to see the benefits, and might not work for everyone.
Antipsychotics(Typical & Atypical) – Used for schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe mood disorders to treat symptoms of psychosis like hallucinations and delusions.
-It works by blocking dopamine receptors, primarily D2 receptors; some newer approaches also affect serotonin receptors.
-Having too much dopamine is related to being aggressive and having trouble controlling impulses.
-Balancing dopamine is extremely important for mental illness treatment, as most mental illnesses are related to an imbalance of neurotransmitters.
Downside: Cardiac Arrhythmias, Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, Anticholinergic effects, Insomnia, Diabetes and so on…
Mood Stabilizers(e.g., Lithium, Valproate) – Used for bipolar disorder.
-The drugs also influence certain neurotransmitters in the brain that may be involved in causing mood disturbance
- Reducing acute (severe) symptoms of mania or depression to a more manageable level 2. Stabilizing mood swings 3. Preventing symptom relapses and rehospitalizations
-For example, lithium Inhibits dopamine to reduce mania, enhances serotonin to stabilize mood, and regulates glutamate (prevents excessive excitability by reducing high levels and increasing low levels).
Downside: for example, lithium: weight gain, tremors, kidney damage, thyroid issues, cognitive slowing
Anxiolytics & Sedatives(e.g., Benzodiazepines, Buspirone) – Used for anxiety disorders.
-How does it work?
For example. Benzodiazepines act as positive allosteric modulators on the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A receptor, enhancing the inhibitory effect of GABA in the central nervous system.
-GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, enhancing GABA activity can be used to calm patients suffering from anxiety disorders.
Downside: Lack of coordination, Slurred speech, Drowsiness, Difficulty breathing, Cognitive impairment, and is addictive!
Stimulants(e.g., Methylphenidate, Amphetamines) – Used for ADHD.
-How does it work?
It usually works by increasing the level of neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine.
-Dopamine is well known as relating to motive and reward. Lower dopamine activity in ADHD reduces the brain’s ability to maintain motivation and reward processing.
-Norepinephrine increases alertness, arousal, and attention. Deficient norepinephrine signaling leads to distractibility, trouble staying on task, and poor working memory.
-As a result, the drug can improve attention, impulse control, and executive function, making them effective for ADHD treatment.
Downside: There’s a risk of developing addiction, and can also cause insomnia, cardiovascular problems, decreased appetite, headaches, and so on.
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